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Hemodialysis requires frequent access to the patient's blood stream (vascular system). Vascular access has been called the "Achilles' Heel" of hemodialysis care. Hemodialysis vascular access procedures and associated costs come to $8,000-10,000 per patient per year. This amount represents approximately 25 percent of total ESRD medical costs. The most common problems are stenosis (narrowing of graft/blood vessel), infection, and thrombosis (clotting).

At present, three types of vascular access are predominant: AV (arteriovenous) fistulas, AV grafts, and catheters. AV fistulas are surgically created by connecting a patient's own artery and vein, usually in the forearm. AV fistulas have the lowest rate of complications, but take from several weeks to several months to mature, heal, and develop in size. Over time, an AV fistula becomes large enough to accommodate the needles required for hemodialysis. AV grafts are also created surgically, but use a synthetic blood vessel to connect the vein and artery. The needles are inserted into this synthetic graft. AV grafts require shorter times (if any) to heal before they can be used, but tend to have more incidents of stenosis and thrombosis than AV fistulas. Catheters are most often used as "bridge" devices, used to bridge the time between from start of dialysis treatments (often an emergency) to when the patient's AV fistula or AV graft has matured and is ready for use. Catheters are generally not used as long-term devices as they tend to have higher rates of infection and thrombosis.